About

Indonesia, Republic of, island republic of Southeast Asia, constituting most of the Malay Archipelago. Indonesia is the world’s fourth most populous country after China, India, and the United States. More than half the people live on Java, where Jakarta, Indonesia’s capital and largest city, is located. Although the islands are home to more than 100 ethnic groups, most Indonesians are of mixed Malay origins and practice Islam.

Several of Indonesia’s islands hosted powerful trading kingdoms between the 5th and 16th centuries ad. The Dutch took control of the islands in the early 1600s and for three centuries profited from Indonesia’s economy, largely at the expense of the local population. Dutch authority over the islands peaked in the early 20th century before growing Indonesian nationalism led to an armed struggle and the declaration of the Republic of Indonesia in 1945. The country enjoyed tremendous economic growth in the 1980s and much of the 1990s, partly due to Indonesia’s abundant natural resources and increases in the manufacturing and services sectors. As a result, Indonesia’s middle class grew considerably, but poverty remained widespread. Indonesia plunged into an economic crisis in 1997 that led to significant political changes, including the resignation of President Suharto, who had been in office for more than 30 years. Democratic elections held in 1999 installed a new government.

LAND AND RESOURCES

Indonesia is located south and east of mainland Asia and north and west of Australia. About half of Indonesia’s nearly 13,700 islands are inhabited; all are located in the Indian and Pacific oceans. The islands stretch across 5,100 km (3,200 mi) in the region of the equator, a distance nearly one-eighth of the Earth’s circumference. The main islands of Indonesia are Java (Jawa), Sumatra (Sumatera), and Sulawesi (Celebes). The republic shares the island of Borneo with Malaysia and Brunei; Indonesian Borneo makes up about 75 percent of the island and is called Kalimantan. Indonesia also shares the island of New Guinea with Papua New Guinea; Indonesia occupies the western half of the island, known as Papua (formerly Irian Jaya). The smaller islands of Indonesia include Madura, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, and Bali. Indonesia administers the western part of Timor Island. Indonesia controlled East Timor from 1975 until 1999, when the East Timorese voted for independence. The territory subsequently came under the administration of the United Nations to aid its transition to independence. Unless otherwise indicated, statistical information up to 1999 in this article includes East Timor.

Indonesia is surrounded by the South China Sea, the Celebes Sea, and the Pacific Ocean to the north, and by the Indian Ocean to the south and west. A stretch of mostly open water consisting of the Java, Flores, and Banda seas divides the major islands of Indonesia into two unequal strings: in the south, the long, narrow islands of Sumatra, Java, Timor, and others; and in the north, the islands of Sulawesi, the Moluccas (Spice Islands), and New Guinea. Each of the major northern islands has a central mountain mass, with plains around the coasts. Puncak Jaya (5,030 m/16,503 ft), in the Sudirman Mountains of Papua, is the highest point in the republic. On the southern islands, a chain of volcanic mountains rises to heights of more than 3,600 m (11,800 ft) and extends from Sumatra in the west to Timor in the east. The highest points are Kerinci (3,805 m/12,484 ft) on Sumatra and Semeru (3,676 m/12,060 ft) on Java.

The most extensive lowland areas are in Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, and Papua. Over centuries, volcanic flows from the many active volcanoes have deposited rich soils on the lowlands, particularly in Java. Java’s fertile volcanic soils support a large agricultural population. The rest of Indonesia is more sparsely settled but contains most of the country’s mineral wealth, including oil in Kalimantan and Sumatra, timber in Kalimantan, and copper in Papua.

Indonesia’s greatest distance from north to south is about 1,900 km (about 1,200 mi) and from east to west about 5,100 km (about 3,200 mi). The country’s total area is 1,904,443 sq km (735,310 sq mi).

A  Natural Regions

Indonesia’s major land regions correspond to its largest islands or groups of islands, which fall into three main geographic regions.

Several of the Greater Sunda Islands, including Java (134,045 sq km/51,755 sq mi), Madura (5,587 sq km/2,157 sq mi), Sumatra (473,605 sq km/182,860 sq mi), and Kalimantan (751,100 sq km/290,000 sq mi), form part of the Sunda Shelf, an extension of the coastal shelves of Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam. The area is characterized by shallow seas less than 250 m (820 ft) deep. A land bridge once joined the islands of the Sunda Shelf; consequently, they still have plants and animals in common and are part of the Indo-Malayan zoogeographic region.

New Guinea, which contains Indonesia’s province of Papua (421,981 sq km/162,928 sq mi), and the nearby Aru Islands are part of the Sahul Shelf that stretches north from the coast of Australia. Like the seas around islands of the Sunda Shelf, the seas of the Sahul Shelf are shallow. However, the islands of the Sahul were more closely linked to Australia than Asia; consequently, they have animals that are similar to Australian animals and are part of the Austro-Malayan zoogeographic region.

In between and separating the Sunda and Sahul shelves are the islands that make up Nusa Tenggara, along with Maluku and Sulawesi (189,040 sq km/72,989 sq mi). Seas in the area reach depths of 5,000 m (16,400 ft), so that even when sea levels were lower, there was little movement between the Sunda and Sahul shelves across this area. The British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace drew attention in the mid-19th century to the great contrasts between the Sunda and Sahul, illustrating his case with the differences between the ecologies of the islands of Bali and Lombok. As a result, the border between the Sunda and Sahul came to be known as Wallace’s Line. Although the line’s precise dimensions are now disputed, there is little dispute about the significant differences between the Sunda and Sahul.

Indonesia has about 400 volcanoes, of which about 130 are active and 70 have erupted in historical times. Most are distributed in a chain along the southern islands: from the tip of northern Sumatra and along its western coast; through Java, Bali, and the eastern islands of Lombok, Sumbawa, and Flores; and into the Banda Sea. Another group clusters around northern Sulawesi and Halmahera Island in the Molucca Sea. The most famous volcanic eruption occurred in 1883 when Krakatau exploded and killed thousands of people on Java and Sumatra. The eruption of Tambora in 1815 was Indonesia’s most destructive, killing approximately 10,000 people in the eruption and many thousands more in the resulting famine.

Indonesia is also prone to earthquakes, with epicenters distributed along the same regions as volcanoes. Although many causes contribute to the geological instability of the area, the main cause is the friction between the underlying tectonic plates (see Plate Tectonics). Most of Indonesia sits on the Eurasian Plate. When the Eurasian Plate collides with the Indo-Australian Plate to the south and east or the Philippine and Caroline plates to the northeast, the second plate slides underneath the Eurasian Plate. The pressure causes geological activity on the Earth’s surface that often takes the form of earthquakes or volcanoes. Recent destructive earthquakes include a 1992 tremor that struck the island of Flores, killing 2,000, and an earthquake that struck Sumatra in 1994, killing 180.

B  Rivers and Lakes

Because of its tropical climate and geography, much of Indonesia’s population lives near water, either on the coast or by rivers and lakes. Indonesia has no major rivers that are similar in size or scope to the Mekong or Yangtze in mainland Asia, but it does have many important rivers. Kalimantan has the largest rivers, including the Mahakam in East Kalimantan and the Martapura and Barito in South Kalimantan. Most of these rivers originate in the island’s central massif (mountain mass) and meander through extensive swamps as they approach the coast. Settlements such as Samarinda and Banjarmasin cluster along the rivers, which serve as communication routes into the interior.

The largest rivers on Sumatra drain from west to east into the Strait of Malacca. In the north, the Asahan River once linked trade between the Batak people who live inland and the Malay people who live along the coast. The Asahan is now dammed, however, and produces hydroelectricity for the industries of North Sumatra. In the south, river ports such as Jambi on the Hari River and Palembang on the Musi River are located upstream, away from the extensive mangrove swamps and marshes of the coast. Passenger ferries and small riverboats provide services along the main rivers.

Papua has more than 30 major rivers draining to the north and south from the Maoke Mountains, which run through the center of the province. One of the most significant is the 400-km (250-mi) Baliem River, which rises in the Jayawijaya Mountains and drains into the Arafura Sea. Many tribal groups, including the Dani and the Asmat, live along the river and its tributaries.

The main rivers of Java include the Tarum and Manuk in the west, the Serang and Serayu in central Java, and the Solo and Brantas in the east. All meander across the broad lowlands of Java, and several are laden with silt due to the extensive farming in their basins.

Lake Toba, the largest of Indonesia’s lakes, is situated on Sumatra’s Batak Highlands in the Barisan Mountains, about 180 km (about 110 mi) south of Medan. Surrounded by steep mountain cliffs and sandy beaches, Lake Toba covers 1,145 sq km (442 sq mi) and features Samosir Island in its center. The lake is the source of the Asahan River, and as the center of Batak culture it is an important tourist destination.

Lake Tempe, in the center of South Sulawesi province, is another important lake, although it is shrinking in both size and significance. Tempe is thought to be a remnant of an inland sea that once divided the peninsula on which it sits. The lake is now fed by the Walanae River and is an important source of fish and shrimp (called lawa), which are used both locally and for export. In order to make Tempe more productive, the government at one time restocked it with fish that do not compete with each other for food. Because of siltation from nearby farms, Tempe is now less than 2 m (6 ft) deep, and large parts dry up in the dry season.

Other significant lakes include Maninjau, Kerinci, and Singkarak in Sumatra; Towuti, Sidenreng, Poso, Tondano, and Matan in Sulawesi; Paniai and Sentani in Papua; Jempang, Melintang, and Semayang on Kalimantan’s Markaham River; and Luar, Sentarum, and Siawan on the upper reaches of Kalimantan’s Kapuas River.

C  Coastline

Due to the large number of islands, Indonesia has about 54,720 km (about 34,000 mi) of coastline, much more than most countries. The country claims all waters surrounding its islands to 12 nautical miles (22 km/14 mi) from the coastline. Indonesia’s exclusive economic zone, an area of the ocean in which the country controls fishing and other rights, extends 200 nautical miles (370 km/230 mi) from its shore.

Much of the northeastern coast of Sumatra and the coasts of Kalimantan and Papua are low and swampy with extensive mangrove forests. Along the coastal regions of northern Java, northeastern Sumatra, and southwestern Sulawesi, local villagers have developed ponds in the brackish tidal waters of mangrove forests. The ponds are used for the farming of fish and prawns. When world prawn prices rose in the early 1980s, villagers expanded the ponds into paddy fields lying further inland. They used pumps to mix seawater and irrigation water to help the fish and prawns thrive.

In stark contrast, the coastlines along the southern edges of Sumatra, Java, and some of the smaller islands of eastern Indonesia (such as Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, and Sumba) are exposed to the swells that roll in from the Indian Ocean. These areas contain some of the world’s best surfing beaches, attracting large numbers of tourists. Bali is particularly renowned for its beaches. Tourists are also attracted to the coral reefs and atolls that extend down the southwestern coast of Sulawesi and surround many of the smaller islands of eastern Indonesia.

D  Plants and Animals

With 40,000 species of flowering plants, including 3,000 trees and 5,000 orchids, Indonesia has a greater variety of flora than the tropical regions of Africa or the Americas. Indonesia is home to the very large and smelly corpse lily (see Rafflesia). Orchids are also abundant, and Indonesia is home to the largest of all orchids, the tiger orchid. The insect-trapping pitcher plant is found throughout western Indonesia.

Tropical rain forests prevail in the northern lowlands of Indonesia. Tall tropical hardwoods dominate the forests and provide good harvests of timber, resin, vegetable oil, and illipe nuts. Mangrove trees and nipa palm dominate the forests of the southern lowlands. The hill forests consist of oak and chestnut trees and mountain plants.

The animals of Indonesia are separated by Wallace’s Line (see Natural Regions above) into the Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan zoogeographic regions. The Indo-Malayan region includes Java, Kalimantan, and Sumatra and has species linked to mainland Asia. Orangutans live in the forests of Sumatra and Kalimantan. Wild oxen, also known as banteng, are in Kalimantan and parts of Java such as the Ujung Kulon National Park in western Java. Proboscis monkeys (bekanten) can be found in Kalimantan, and elephants, tapir, and siamangs (black gibbons) inhabit Sumatra.

In the late 1990s about 400 Sumatran tigers, an endangered species, remained in Sumatra. Even in the national parks it is estimated that at least 14 are killed each year, some by poachers, others by villagers because the tigers prey on pigs. The tigers of Java (commonly, the Javan tiger) are believed to be extinct, and on Bali they are long extinct.

The animals of the Austro-Malayan region are linked to Australia. Papua is home to the large, flightless cassowary bird and to many species of colorful birds of paradise.

Maluku, Sulawesi, and the Lesser Sunda Islands lie between the two larger regions and have somewhat distinctive animals drawn from both. Maleo birds are native to Sulawesi. The phalanger, an Australian type of marsupial, is found on Timor. The Komodo dragon, of Komodo and Rinca islands, is the world’s largest lizard, growing to 3 m (10 ft) in length.

E  Natural Resources

Volcanic ash creates rich soil that is ideal for growing crops, but large areas of Indonesia cannot be cultivated because of swamps, soil erosion, or steep slopes.

Tropical forests cover 55 percent of the land, although this proportion has been shrinking due to deforestation. Trees of the Dipterocarp family, such as the meranti, are a valuable forest resource. Also important are ramin, sandalwood, ebony, and teak. Teak in particular is grown in plantation forests. The government has established many national parks to conserve the natural vegetation and native wildlife. Indonesia claims that little or no commercial development is permitted in about half its forests. The more important national parks include Gunung Leuser (in northwestern Sumatra), Kerinci Seblat (in central Sumatra), Bukit Barisan Selatan (in southern Sumatra), Ujung Kulon (in western Java), Tanjung Puting (in central Kalimantan), and Komodo Island (between Sumbawa and Flores).

Indonesia has significant deposits of oil and natural gas, most of which are concentrated along the eastern coast of Sumatra and in and around Kalimantan. Indonesia produces more than 80 percent of Southeast Asia’s oil and more than 35 percent of the world’s liquefied gas. Tin on Belitung and Bangka islands, bauxite on Bintan Island, copper in Papua, nickel on Sulawesi, and coal on Sumatra are Indonesia’s major mineral resources. Small amounts of silver, gold, diamonds, and rubies are also found. Large parts of Indonesia, especially in Kalimantan and Papua, have not been intensively explored for minerals. The seas surrounding Indonesia yield abundant saltwater fish, pearls, shells, and agar (a substance extracted from seaweed).

F  Climate

Because of Indonesia’s location near the equator and its island geography, the climate along coastal areas is hot and humid year-round. The average daily temperature range of Jakarta is 21° to 33°C (69° to 92°F) and varies little from winter to summer. Temperatures in upland areas tend to be cooler.

Indonesia has two monsoon seasons: a wet season from November to March and a dry season from June to October. Between monsoons, the weather is more moderate. The northern parts of the country have only slight differences in precipitation during the wet and dry seasons. Average rainfall in the lowlands varies from 1,780 to 3,175 mm (70 to 125 in) per year, and in some mountain regions rainfall reaches 6,100 mm (240 in) per year. The regions with the highest rainfall include the mountainous western coast of Sumatra and the upland areas of western Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua. Humidity is generally high, averaging about 80 percent yearly.

The driest parts of the country, with annual rainfall under 1,000 mm (40 in), are along the coast of the Lesser Sunda Islands and the easternmost end of Java. The erratic seasonal distribution of rain in these areas makes farming difficult.

Indonesia lies beyond the typhoon zone of the western Pacific and the especially powerful storms of the South China Sea. Occasionally a typhoon sweeps through the eastern seas but rarely reaches the Java Sea.

G  Environmental Issues

The islands of Indonesia have an extremely fragile ecosystem. The coral reefs that fringe the country’s many islands are of great importance in preserving marine biodiversity. These reefs are threatened by overfishing, coastal development, marine pollution, and sediment from inland sources. In recent years, political turmoil in Indonesia has hampered efforts to preserve the reefs. Another major environmental concern is deforestation, which is a serious threat to wildlife habitat and causes soil erosion that degrades the health of rivers. From 1990 to 1995 Indonesia lost an estimated 54,220 sq km (20,930 sq mi) of tropical forest. The annual rate of deforestation from 1990 to 2000 was 1.2 percent. Illegal logging dramatically increased in the late 1990s. In 2001 the government of Indonesia banned the sale of timber from endangered hardwood trees, such as ramin trees. However, timber companies have been poorly regulated for many years, and the recent ban will be difficult to enforce.

Rapid urban growth in Indonesia has created a number of environmental problems. New and growing industries have harmed air and water quality, and expanding urban development has encroached on rural areas. The migration of rural people to cities has overtaxed groundwater supplies, and urban watercourses are often polluted with solid wastes.

These and other environmental problems in Indonesia have gained both local and international attention in recent years. A number of environmentally oriented, nongovernmental organizations have formed, including the Network for Forest Conservation in Indonesia (Skephi) and Wahli (Wahana Lingkungan Hidup Indonesia, or Indonesian Environmental Forum), an umbrella group for smaller environmental organizations. The government has made some attempts to address environmental concerns by creating a ministry for the environment in 1978 and by increasing environmental regulations. The 1982 Environmental Management Act makes the government responsible for resource management. The government’s Environmental Protection Authority (BAPEDAL) has increased its efforts throughout Indonesia’s provinces. Critics of the government, however, argue that many environmental agencies run by the Ministry for the Environment have unclear and overlapping environmental responsibilities. The government has declared six biosphere reserves under a program of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Indonesia has ratified a number of international environmental agreements on issues such as biodiversity and wetlands preservation.

III  THE PEOPLE OF INDONESIA

Indonesia’s estimated population in 2002 was 232,073,071, giving it an average population density of 122 persons per sq km (316 per sq mi). In 2002 the population was growing by 1.6 percent a year. This was a drop from the annual rate of 1.8 percent during the 1980s and relatively low by the standards of countries with similar income levels. The slow growth rate is partly attributable to economic growth that encourages smaller families and partly a product of the government’s active and successful family planning program.

With an estimated population of 114,733,500 in 1995, Java contains well over half of Indonesia’s people. The next most populous islands are Sumatra, with an estimated 40,830,400 people; Sulawesi, with 13,732,500; and Kalimantan, with 10,470,800. The remaining islands have much smaller populations, including 2,895,600 on Bali.

Early in the 20th century the Dutch began a program to shift people from heavily populated Java to the more sparsely settled parts of Sumatra. The Indonesian government began its own transmigration program in 1969, moving families first from Java to Sumatra and later from Java and other islands to Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku, and Papua. At its peak, from 1979 to 1984, 535,474 families were moved. Since then, however, both the program’s cost and the shortage of sites for resettlement have caused the number of migrants to drop considerably. The transmigration program was suspended in 2000.

A  Principal Cities

In 2000, 41 percent of Indonesia’s population lived in urban areas, compared to 22 percent in 1980. During the late 1990s, the urban population was growing at an estimated 4.2 percent per year, more than twice as fast as the rest of the country. Jakarta, the capital and largest city, is the main center of industry and commerce. Jakarta’s metropolitan area has a total population of 9.3 million (1997). The city’s urban sprawl has extended into the neighboring province of West Java, which has also experienced an increase of population and industry.

Surabaya, the second largest city, is the capital of East Java and an important industrial center and port. The third largest city is Bandung, the capital of West Java and the center of Indonesia’s high-technology sector, including the aircraft manufacturing industry. Bandung is also home to the important Bandung Institute of Technology.

Indonesia’s other large cities include Medan, the capital of North Sumatra and the center of a growing industrial area based on agriculture and low-cost energy; Palembang, the capital of South Sumatra and an important trade center for oil and other goods; Semarang, the capital of Central Java and a major seaport and commercial center; and Makassar (formerly known as Ujungpandang), the capital of South Sulawesi and a major gateway to eastern Indonesia.

B  Ethnic Groups

The Javanese, who live mainly in central and eastern Java, are the largest ethnic group, constituting 45 percent of Indonesia’s population. On the western end of Java are the Sundanese, who make up 14 percent of the population and are the second largest group. Other significant ethnic groups include the Madurese, who hail from Madura, off the northeast coast of Java, and make up 8 percent of the population; and the ethnic Malay, who are dispersed throughout several areas, and make up 7 percent of the population. Among the ethnic groups on Sumatra are the Bataks, who cluster around Lake Toba; the Minangkabau, from the western highlands; the Acehnese, from the far north; and the Lampungese, who live in the south. On Sulawesi, the Minahasans live in the north, the Bugis and Makassarese cluster around the coasts in the south, and the Toraja inhabit much of the interior. Kalimantan is populated by more than 200 groups; most of these are tribes of the Dayak ethnic group in the interior or are ethnic Malay living on the coast. The people of Papua are of Melanesian descent, as are some residents from smaller eastern islands. Several million Indonesians of Chinese descent are concentrated in urban areas. Smaller numbers of Indians, Arabs, and Europeans are scattered around the archipelago.

Ethnic tensions simmer in Indonesia. The movement of many Javanese to Papua under the transmigration program has created tensions with native residents there. Many Indonesians have also come into conflict with residents of Chinese origin, who have been historically successful in business ventures and generally enjoy a higher standard of living than Indonesians of Malay descent. Frustration over the actual or perceived wealth of the Chinese has led to riots in towns and cities on Java and other parts of Indonesia, particularly in 1997 and 1998 when the Chinese were blamed for Indonesia’s economic problems. Many Chinese Indonesians fled the country at that time.

C  Language

About 300 languages and dialects are spoken in Indonesia, but Bahasa Indonesia is the official and most widely spoken tongue. Its common use has helped unify the country since independence in 1949. Bahasa Indonesia is based on Malay, long the market language of coastal towns, and it contains elements of Chinese, Indian, Dutch, and English. In 1972 Indonesia and Malaysia, where the Malay-based Bahasa Malaysia is the official language, agreed on a revised and uniform system for spelling Bahasa Indonesia and Bahasa Malaysia. Today, television programs, major newspapers, schools, and universities all use Bahasa Indonesia.

Other languages are also widely used, and many Indonesians speak two or more languages. These languages, as well as Bahasa Indonesia, belong mainly to the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian languages family. They include Javanese, with more than 80 million speakers, and Sundanese, spoken by residents of the western end of Java. Acehnese, Batak, Minangkabau, and Malay are spread throughout Sumatra. Among the languages spoken on Sulawesi are Minahasan, dialects of Torajan, Buginese, and Makassarese. On the eastern islands, Balinese, Sasak (Lombok), and Sumbawan are spoken. The people of Kalimantan speak Malay dialects, Iban, and other dialects. Trans-New Guinea and West Papuan languages are spoken in Papua and in the northern parts of Maluku. English is in growing use as the language of business, while older people who were educated in Dutch schools before independence occasionally use Dutch.

D  Religion

Followers of a form of Islam make up 87 percent of the population, making Indonesia the largest Islamic country in the world. Christians represent 9 percent of the population. Most of these belong to the Protestant Church in Indonesia, a merger of several Protestant sects. There are also many other locally organized Protestant groups, such as the Batak Protestant Christian Church, which claims about 2 million members. About 2 percent of the population is Roman Catholic. Buddhists, most of whom are of Chinese descent, account for about 1 percent of the population. Hinduism was once a major influence throughout the region but is now significant only on Bali. Indonesia’s constitution guarantees freedom of religion.

E  Education

Under colonial rule, education in Indonesia was designed mainly to prepare Dutch children and the children of native elite for administrative tasks. In 1903 a primary school for Indonesian girls opened, and by 1940 a system of schools for native Indonesians existed alongside the elite Dutch system. Following independence in 1949, the new government tried to expand the educational system but was hampered by a lack of funds. In the late 1960s the government began promoting elementary education, which in Indonesia lasts for six years. Since 1990 compulsory education includes elementary schooling and three years of lower secondary schooling. An additional three years of upper secondary schooling are optional.

In the 1994-1995 school year 29.7 million Indonesian children attended elementary schools: About 82 percent of girls and 97 percent of boys reach the fourth grade. Secondary schools are attended by 48 percent of school-age girls and 56 percent of school-age boys. In the mid-1990s some 1.6 million Indonesian students attended vocational institutes. The higher school attendance among boys reflects the values of a largely conservative, rural society, although the gap in schooling between boys and girls has begun to narrow. In 2001 some 97 percent of Indonesian females and 98 percent of males were literate. The economic crisis of the late 1990s caused some children to withdraw temporarily from school because their families could no longer afford school fees.

Indonesia has more than 50 government-operated universities and more than 1,000 private universities. The largest and most important universities are the University of Indonesia, which has campuses in Jakarta and Depok, on the Jakarta-West Java border; Gajah Mada University in Yogyakarta; Padjadjaran University in Bandung; and Hasanuddin University in Makassar. The Bandung Institute of Technology is regarded as one of Indonesia’s elite educational institutions. Atma Jaya University in Jakarta and Parahyangan University in Bandung are highly regarded private universities.

F  Way of Life

The sprawling Indonesian archipelago is home to many different ways of life, reflecting the region’s history. Before independence, the only factor uniting the islands was Dutch colonialism. Although the kingdoms of Sri Vijaya, Majapahit, and Mataram spread their influence widely throughout the islands, none of the native empires ever controlled the whole region. Nor did Buddhism or Hinduism have a significant impact in the far eastern stretches. As the country has modernized and urbanized, life in the cities has evolved new patterns, adding additional diversity to Indonesian life.

The status of women in Indonesia is varied, and opinions about women’s roles are polarized. Most Indonesians concede that women have limited formal opportunities in social institutions, but many claim women exert considerable power within families. The Minangkabau society in western Sumatra is matrilineal—that is, property and lineage are passed down and traced through the mother’s family. However, the Minangkabau are an isolated example. In the mid-1990s women comprised less than 10 percent of managers and administrators. Feminism is largely an urban ideology in Indonesia, pursued by younger, educated women.

Men and women who live in cities generally adopt Western dress. Regionally, there are many styles of traditional dress, but most women wear a sarong (wraparound skirt or dress) and a kebaya, a fitted blouse. When participating in ceremonies, men often wear a batik shirt and a sarong skirt, along with a songkok, a black Muslim cap.

The most popular sports in Indonesia are badminton and soccer. Tennis has also gained a growing following. Several forms of martial arts, including forms that use sticks and knives, are popular in Java and Sumatra.

Rice is the staple food of most Indonesian dishes and its preparation varies between regions. The hot, spicy food from the Padang region can be found in specialized Padang restaurants throughout most of Indonesia. Sundanese food is served in West Java, while most places have a local specialty, such as grilled fish and seafood in Makassar. Traditional Indonesian drinks include an alcoholic wine (tuak) made from the red sugar of a palm tree. Islam forbids the consumption of alcohol, however, so most Indonesians drink weak black tea with food. In cities, bottled water is popular.

G  Social Issues

Indonesian society has experienced a profound shift in the location of wealth. For much of the period since independence in 1949, wealth was concentrated in rural areas, particularly beyond Java. The rural elite prospered through their control of land and through their success as crop exporters. With industrialization in and around the larger cities, however, the wealth has shifted to urban areas of Java and Bali. Wealth is now derived from manufacturing, infrastructure projects, and the services sector.

A skewed pattern of income distribution is a growing problem in Indonesia, with many Indonesians living in poverty, especially in rural areas. In 1996 the wealthiest 10 percent of Indonesians accounted for 30.3 percent of spending, while the poorest 10 percent accounted for 3.6 percent of the country’s total spending. Overall inequality is lower in Indonesia than in nearby Thailand, the Philippines, or Malaysia, largely because Indonesia’s wealthiest are still a very small proportion of the population.

Indonesia also has large differences in income distribution among its provinces. The provinces with the largest shares of the gross domestic product (GDP) are East Kalimantan, Jakarta, and Riau: East Kalimantan and Riau are rich in natural resources, and Jakarta is successful in industry and services. The poorest provinces are all in eastern Indonesia: East Nusa Tenggara, West Nusa Tenggara, and Southeast Sulawesi. The government has tried to stimulate the economies of these provinces.

Many young villagers continue to leave the rural areas for the city, leaving many villages with concentrations of older people. In the cities, rapid growth has strained services and infrastructure beyond their limits, and most new migrants, unable to afford adequate housing, drift to ramshackle squatter settlements. Housing for other Indonesians—in cities and in villages—is little better. In 1995 fewer than half of all houses had a toilet, 24 percent had earthen floors, 33 percent had no electricity for lighting, and 83 percent did not have piped drinking water.

IV  ARTS AND CULTURE

Indonesian culture mixes the traditions of many civilizations and religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Southeast Asian, Polynesian, Chinese, Arabic, and Dutch. Since independence, the arts in Indonesia have been influenced by domestic politics. During the 1950s and 1960s the left-leaning Institute for People’s Culture (also known as Lekra) was very influential. With the backing of Sukarno, Indonesia’s first president, Lekra strongly resisted American cultural influence and favored socialist realism in art. After the 1965 attempt to overthrow Sukarno and the ascension to power of Suharto in 1966, there were widespread killings of many Indonesians, including members of the artistic elite. Many artists went into exile and others, such as the prominent author Pramoedya Ananta Toer, were jailed. The government fostered some of the traditional arts of Indonesia but maintained a close watch on many independent strands of contemporary art. Permits were required before plays could be staged and books were banned with little explanation. As a result, during the Suharto years tensions permeated the arts in modern Indonesia, while Indonesian artists in exile were an aging but active presence. Suharto stepped down in May 1998, and artistic activity has flowered in Indonesia under his more liberal successors.

A  Literature

Written literature exists for very few of Indonesia’s languages, although oral traditions, including prose and poetry, are very strong. Indian literature is influential, particularly in Old Javanese writings, which date from about ad 1000. Modern Javanese literature dates from the early 1700s and combines native, Indian, and Muslim traditions. Writing in Malay flourished after becoming the official language of the Indonesian people in 1928. Malay writings were closely associated with growing nationalism, and Sumatran writers of the time, such as Muhammad Yamin, were particularly influential. After independence, a group of writers known as the Generation of 1945 (Angkatan 45) emerged. They were direct and fierce and were epitomized by the poet Chairil Anwar. In the 1950s and 1960s ideological politics polarized the writing community and Lekra succeeded in pushing writers to adopt the style of socialist realism.

Perhaps the most famous writer of modern Indonesian literature is Pramoedya Ananta Toer. After the failed 1965 coup the government imprisoned Pramoedya because of his Communist links; he was released from jail in 1979 but placed under city arrest in Jakarta. His Buru Quartet, composed of Bumi Manusia (1980; This Earth of Mankind, 1991), Anak Semua Bangsa (1980; Child of All Nations, 1993), Jejak Langkah (1985; Footsteps, 1994), and Rumah Kaca (1988; House of Glass, 1992), tells the story of Indonesian nationalism through the character Minke, a Dutch-educated Javanese. The quartet, which was banned in Indonesia, became well known internationally.

Another internationally acclaimed writer is Romo Mangun. His Burung-Burung Manyar (The Weaverbirds, 1991) won the Southeast Asia Writers’ Award but was frowned on by the government for its critical view of Indonesian history. Mochtar Lubis’s Sendja di Djakarta (1970; Twilight in Djakarta, 1983) tells a story of corruption and decline in Jakarta in the 1960s. Other well-known writers include Achdiat Karta Mihardja, Umar Kayam, and Budi Darma. Indonesia’s best-known poets include Rendra, Subagio Sastrowardojo, Goenawan Mohamad, Sapardi Djoko Damono, and Sutardji Calzoum Bachri.

B  Art and Architecture

Indonesian modern art is an adaptation of modern art in other parts of the world, flavored with Indonesian cultural influences. Modern Indonesian art is often traced to the formation, in 1937, of the Union of Indonesian Artists, or Persagi (Persatuan Ahli Gambar Indonesia), and to important artists of the time such as Sudjojono. Artists were important in the nationalist movement in the 1930s and 1940s.

Indonesian artists clustered around several institutions such as the Taman Ismail Marzuki Art Center in Jakarta, a center of avant-garde art in the 1970s. The painter Djoko Pekik is known for his hard-edged expressionist paintings of the problems of daily life in Indonesia, particularly for the poor. The New Art Movement (Gerakan Seni Rupa Baru) in the 1970s and 1980s emphasized making art relevant to society by examining socioeconomic problems. Practitioners of this art included Hardi, Nanik Mirna, Jim Supangket, Dedi Eri Supria, Gendut Riyanto, Haris Purnama, and Bonyong Munni Ardhi. Contemporary artists such as Heri Dono, Agus Suwage, Tisna Sanjaya, and Arahmaiani create daring depictions of Indonesia’s social issues. Basuki Resobowo paints somber scenes from contemporary Indonesia, often based on themes of struggle and resistance. The more liberal environment in Indonesia since May 1998 has brought a surge of contemporary paintings dealing with these topics, which were forbidden during the Suharto era. Many of Indonesia’s contemporary artists, such as Basuki Resobowo, spent long periods in exile during Suharto’s rule.

Indonesia has a long and grand architectural tradition. Indian influence is evident in the large Buddhist monument of Borobudur and the Hindu temple of Prambanan, both in central Java. Borobudur is Indonesia’s most famous tourist attraction. Built in the 9th century, it is a representation of the Buddhist vision of the cosmos. Prambanan, the largest Hindu temple complex in Java, was built during the 8th and 10th centuries. Arabic and Chinese Muslims have influenced the architectural style of mosques throughout Java.

The government, with international aid, has worked to preserve much of its architectural heritage, including Borobudur. Some sites, however, are threatened by rapid economic development. Meanwhile, many of the new structures in Jakarta, particularly in the city’s business center, show the modernist and postmodernist influences of contemporary architecture. Indonesian architect Soejoedi Wirjoatmodjo has played a prominent role in modern designs.

C  Music

The gamelan, a drum and gong orchestra, is the best known of Indonesia’s classical music forms. The word gamelan comes from the Javanese word gamel, which refers to a type of hammer. The main instruments in the gamelan orchestra include gongs, bronze xylophones, bronze kettles on a horizontal frame, drums, flutes, zithers, and a two-stringed bowed instrument. The gamelan performs both in an instrumental role as well as in a supportive role for dance and puppet performances. The three major gamelan styles in Indonesia are based on Sundanese culture, central Javanese culture, and Balinese culture. The Balinese form, gamelan gong kebyar, has a faster tempo than the others. See also Indonesian Music.Indonesian Music, the music of the peoples of the islands of the Indonesian archipelago, the world’s fifth most populous nation. Despite the vastness of the country and its many regional differences, certain common musical traditions can be found throughout Indonesia. Everywhere some form of ensemble exists that is made up of small tuned gongs and two or three drums. Generally, these gong-and-drum ensembles accompany ritual and religious activities. Throughout the islands, historical and religious epics are sung, and they are often accompanied by a stringed instrument or a flute. Another common element is the belief that music is a means of communicating with unseen powers.

Because musical performance has always been strongly tied to ritual activity in Indonesia, changes of religion over the centuries have been associated with the coming of new musical styles and musical instruments. Rather than discard the old for the new, Indonesians prefer to add the new to the old. Thus, old music and new music coexist.

II  GONG-AND-DRUM ENSEMBLES

Although Indonesia has many kinds of solo vocal music, choral music, and music for wind and stringed instruments, it has more varieties of ensembles of gongs and drums than any other country in the world. The gongs of these ensembles, with their raised knob in the center and their deep, turned-down rims, are generally termed pot gongs (see Gong). Made of bronze, they have been manufactured in Indonesia for at least 1000 years and possibly for 2000 or 3000 years, and they are sometimes believed to possess supernatural power. The simplest ensembles have only four or five small pot gongs (tuned to different pitches) and two or three drums. Each gong and drum starts playing one after the other; the individual players fit their parts between the beats of the other instruments. Some of the gongs and drums play short, continuously repeated patterns, while others play many melodic and rhythmic variations against these repeated patterns. The musical performance is thus both always the same and constantly changing.

One such ensemble is the goo-laba. Played by the Nga’dha peoples of Flores, an island of Eastern Indonesia, this ensemble consists of five gongs (goo) and three drums (laba). In the basic musical cycle the five gongs interlock in an eight-beat pattern:

The vela gong plays beats, 2, 4, 6, and 8.

The uto-uto gong plays beats 1, 3, 5, and 7.

The dhere gong plays beats 2, 3, 6, and 7, but damps beats 3 and 7.

The first of the doa gongs plays beat 4.

The second doa plays beats 2, 5, and 8, but damps beat 8.

The vela is the first instrument to play; the others enter in turn. The drums, similarly, play three different patterns in an eight-beat framework.

The instruments and music of the goo-laba ensemble are believed to be links with the venerated ancestors of the Nga’dha peoples and are treated with great respect. In the early 20th century the Nga’dha peoples converted to Christianity; now, hymn singing is one of their most common musical activities. Nevertheless, whenever a ceremonial feast includes rites honoring the ancestors, the goo-laba ensemble is brought out of storage and played for hours at a stretch. Similarly, the Minang Kabau peoples of Sumatra, who converted to Islam in the late 16th century, perform mystical Islamic poetry, sung in Arabic and accompanied by a tambourine (terbang). For the most ancient ceremonies—such as those meant to ensure a good rice harvest—they play the talempong ensemble of gongs and drums.

III  THE GAMELAN

Of the drum-and-gong ensembles of Indonesia, the largest and best known are the gamelan ensembles of Java and Bali. While retaining their ritual associations with the ancestors and with the fertility of Java and Bali, these ensembles also became associated with Hinduism and Buddhism, which were widely followed in Indonesia between ad500 and 1500. Hinduism and Buddhism encourage intense concentration on the inner state of being as well as on the details and processes of the outside world; this concentration led to an artistic value that emphasized restraint and refinement. In Java and Bali, Hindu-Buddhist influence resulted in the development of unusually large musical cycles, sometimes as long as 512 beats (compared to the 8 beats of the goo-laba ensemble), and in these cycles the variation parts became extremely subtle. It was believed that the more delicate, subtle, and refined the music, the more spiritually advanced the musician.

As the gamelan developed, many instruments were added to the basic drum-and-gong ensemble, including several varieties of metallophones (bronze-keyed xylophones). The largest and best-quality gamelans require about 30 musicians and were once owned by regional kings. Different courts competed not only in battle but also to see who could provide the most beautiful performances of dance and music.

No gamelan or gong-and-drum ensemble has the same tuning as any other ensemble. In Central Java, two general categories of tuning exist, sléndro and pélog. Tunings belonging to the sléndro category have five almost equidistant pitches per octave. Tunings in the pélog category have seven pitches per octave, with some adjacent notes a large interval apart and others a small interval apart. Sléndro does not resemble the worldwide pentatonic (five-note) scale, nor is pélog like any common diatonic (seven-note) scale. The multiplicity of tunings is a source of great satisfaction to Indonesians, who enjoy comparing the emotional quality of the tunings of different gamelans or gong ensembles. Some tunings are considered happy, some brave, some coquettish, some melancholy.

IV  20TH-CENTURY DEVELOPMENTS

The roles of musical activities in Indonesia have changed considerably in the 20th century. Increasingly, a musical performance is not part of a ritual, but a public activity for which a ticket must be purchased. Audiences may applaud, and musicians may take bows—activities unknown at traditional rituals. The government has established schools for the study of music, both to preserve and to encourage traditional arts. Paying for a music course and getting credit and earning a grade for it, however, are different kinds of experience from being taught ancient traditions by a master who may also be an honored relative or neighbor. Although the musical content may be the same, changing the situation of learning changes the meaning of what is learned. Learning music at a school tends to loosen the ties of the music to religious or community values. Music becomes a separate activity, ceasing to be an integral part of society and religion. No music remains the same, however, and Indonesian music finds its own way to survive in a changing world.

D  Dance

Indonesia is home to many traditional dance styles, and the classical dance traditions of Java and Bali have attracted worldwide attention. In Java, classical forms blend native traditions with stories and dance techniques from India. The forms have evolved over the last 200 years from the dances of Java’s former Islamic-influenced courts and today are centered in Yogyakarta, Surakarta, and Jakarta. The most significant of the Javanese court dances are the bedaja and the serimpi. Slow and restrained, women dancers move solemnly to the accompaniment of the gamelan and choral singing. Javanese mask dances (wayang topeng) have been traced to the 11th century. In these, dancers with wooden masks based on traditional three-dimensional rod puppets (wayang golek) act out stories from the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and local tales. The most famous of these tales is The Adventures of Prince Panji. Another significant dance drama is the wayang orang, in which men and women act out a familiar range of Indian and local epics. In the wayang orang, dancers dress and act in a style adapted from traditional shadow puppets (wayang kulit).

Bali has a rich tradition of dances that are part of religious rituals. Often performed by nonprofessionals, dances are held in temple courtyards and coincide with religious feasts. The sacred baris gede is a battle dance performed by men, while another secular form of baris has been developed for the tourist market. Women dance the sacred rejang to evoke beauty. Bali is also well known for its trance dances, in which performers experience an altered state of consciousness and seek contact with the spirit world. In the Sang Hyang, a genre of trance dances in remote villages, men are believed to become possessed by animal spirits that bring about ritual purification of the community. Adolescent girls dance the Sang Hyang dedari.

The Balinese perform versions of Java’s wayang wong and wayang topeng, but the legong is Bali’s best-known dance. Two or three young girls perform the dance, which tells fragments of stories from the life of Prince Panji. The legong dates from the 18th century, although it draws on older traditions. Several regional governments pay performers to dance, both to foster identity and to promote tourism.

E  Theater and Film

Shadow puppets (wayang kulit) have been at the core of Javanese theater for more than 1,000 years and are still the most popular form of shadow theater. In wayang kulit, the puppeteer (dalang) manipulates leather figures so that their shadows dance across a white screen. Performances, which typically begin in the late evening and end at sunrise, are built around such Indian epics as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Other forms of Javanese puppet theater include flat wooden puppets (wayang klitik) and three-dimensional rod puppets (wayang golek).

Among Indonesia’s most innovative contemporary theater companies is Bengkel Teater, established in 1967 by Rendra, a well-known poet and dramatist. Bengkel productions blend traditional Indonesian theatrical and musical forms, such as shadow puppets and gamelan orchestras, with American and European theater, such as the works of English playwright William Shakespeare. Street theater performances increased in the late 1990s.

Two Europeans made the first film in Indonesia in Bandung in the mid-1920s. For the next several years most of Indonesia’s films were made by Indonesians of Chinese descent, who also owned most of the cinemas. In the mid-1930s the Dutch government established a film production company, and filmmaking grew until 1942, when it stopped abruptly with the Japanese invasion during World War II.

After independence in 1949, film production expanded rapidly, peaking at 58 films in 1955. At the same time, the industry experienced a major shift toward greater pribumi (ethnic Indonesian) involvement in filmmaking. Films were often about the struggle for independence and the government strictly censored them. In the early 1960s films became increasingly politicized. Indonesia’s most important film directors of this era were Bachtiar Siagian and Usmar Ismail, who made a satirical film about President Sukarno titled Tamu Agung (The VIP, 1955). In the violence following the 1965 coup attempt on President Sukarno, Siagian was jailed on Buru Island. Other filmmakers were also purged, and Siagian was not released until 1979.

In the 1990s Indonesia produced about 60 to 70 feature films each year, less than half the total number of new films shown in Indonesia. Before the Suharto era ended, government censorship guided the depiction of key events and individuals in Indonesian history. Most Indonesian films are in Bahasa Indonesia. One prominent exception was the highly regarded Djut Nya Dien, a story in the Acehnese language about a heroine in the Dutch resistance. In rare instances difficult social problems are addressed in films, as in Putri Giok (The Jade Princess), which examined the assimilation of Chinese Indonesians.

F  Libraries and Museums

Indonesia has about 20 major libraries, located mainly in the cities of Bandung, Bogor, Jakarta, and Yogyakarta. The National Archives and the Library of the National Museum are in Jakarta, as is the National Library, which includes a number of special collections.

Established in 1862, the National Museum in Jakarta has a significant collection of cultural objects from Indonesia’s ethnic groups and is among the most renowned museums in Southeast Asia. Jakarta also has a Textile Museum and the Abri Satriamandala Army Museum. The latter features many dioramas depicting scenes of Indonesia’s struggle for independence, as well as weapons and military equipment. Jakarta is also home to Taman Mini Indonesia, a theme park that represents the diverse cultures of Indonesia. The park includes houses that are built using the designs and materials characteristic of each province and district.

The Freedom Building (Gedung Merdeka) in Bandung is dedicated to the anticolonial Bandung Conference of Asian and African countries held in Indonesia in the 1950s. Yogyakarta has the Sono-Budoyo Museum, which houses Javanese, Balinese, and Madurese arts; and the Diponegoro Museum, which contains relics of the 19th-century Javanese hero Prince Diponegoro. The Bali Museum in Denpasar has a collection of Balinese arts and crafts, including architecture. Most regional cities have museums dedicated to local history. For example, Fort Rotterdam in Makassar dates to 1667 and houses two museums with a large collection of cultural artifacts from South Sulawesi.

V  ECONOMY

Prior to independence, Indonesia’s economy was oriented to providing raw materials to The Netherlands. Subsistence agriculture, primarily the production of rice, was the mainstay of most of the population, but the economy also relied on plantation agriculture, including the production of sugar and rubber. Industry was not promoted so as to avoid competing with The Netherlands. The first few decades after independence were marked by economic mismanagement. The government of President Sukarno focused on unifying the country politically, not on rebuilding Indonesia’s crumbling infrastructure or improving the economy. In contrast, President Suharto’s “New Order” government gave much more priority to the economy, instituting a series of five-year plans (Repelita) starting in 1969. The aims of Suharto’s economic policy were to expand foreign investment and increase trade. When export revenues from oil declined in the early and mid-1980s, Indonesia was forced to expand other exports. To make these exports more competitive internationally, the government deregulated parts of the economy such as coastal transportation, finance, and banking.

Indonesia’s economy grew impressively during the 1980s and much of the 1990s, largely on the strength of its natural resources, which include a large population, solid energy reserves, substantial mineral deposits, and fertile farmland. Indonesia’s gross domestic product (GDP) was $153.3 billion in 2000. Its GDP per capita was $730. Between 1985 and 1995 the GDP grew by about 95 percent, while annual inflation remained below 10 percent. Between 1980 and 2000 there were significant shifts in the structure of the Indonesian economy. Agriculture shrank from 24 to 17 percent of the GDP. Industry as a whole remained stable, but manufacturing, the largest component of industry, grew from 13 to 26 percent of the GDP.

In mid-1997 an economic crisis developed in Asia when investors lost confidence in certain debt-laden economies. As the crisis spread to Indonesia, the value of the Indonesian currency plummeted, which threatened the capacity of the government, banks, and businesses to repay their foreign debts. In October the government negotiated an aid package with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). In exchange for massive loans, Indonesia agreed to implement austerity measures such as reducing government spending and reforming the financial sector. The crisis deepened in 1998 when the IMF halted funds, claiming that the Suharto regime had failed to abide by IMF terms, and as social unrest began to spread. By late May 1998 the economic and social crisis had caused President Suharto to resign. Indonesia was more seriously affected by the Asian economic crisis than were its neighbors. The GDP fell 13.2 percent in 1998 and shrank again in 1999. Nearly half of all corporations were insolvent in 1999, and unemployment increased. After the authoritarian Suharto regime ended, the IMF agreed to resume a multimillion-dollar loan program with the Indonesian government. indonesia fascination, bali fascination, exotic place to visit, isle of god, paradise island